SRI KRISHNASHTAKAM

श्रीकृष्णाष्टकम्

श्रियाश्लिष्टो विष्णुः स्थिरचरगुरुर्वेदविषयो
धियां साक्षी शुद्धो हरिरसुरहन्ताऽब्जनयनः ।
गदी शंङ्खी चक्री विमलवनमाली स्थिररुचिः
शरण्यो लोकेशो मम भवतु कृष्णोऽक्षिविषयः ॥ १ ॥

यतः सर्वं जातं वियदनिलमुख्यं जगदिदं
स्थितौ निःशेषं योऽवति निजसुखांशेन मधुहा ।
लये सर्वं स्वस्मिन्हरति कलया यस्तु स विभुः
शरण्यो लोकेशो मम भवतु कृष्णोऽक्षिविषयः ॥ २ ॥

असूनायम्यादौ यमनियममुख्यैः सुकरणै-
र्निरुद्ध्येयं चित्तं हृदि विलयमानीय सकलम् ।
यमीड्यं पश्यन्ति प्रवरमतयो मायिनमसौ
शरण्यो लोकेशो मम भवतु कृष्णोऽक्षिविषयः ॥ ३ ॥

पृथिव्यां तिष्ठन्यो यमयति महीं वेद न धरा
यमित्यादौ वेदो वदति जगतामीशममलम् ।
नियन्तारं ध्येयं मुनिसुरनृणां मोक्षदमसौ
शरण्यो लोकेशो मम भवतु कृष्णोऽक्षिविषयः ॥ ४ ॥

महेन्द्रादिर्देवो जयति दितिजान्यस्य बलतो
न कस्य स्वातन्त्र्यं क्वचिदपि कृतौ यत्कृतिमृते ।
बलारातेर्गर्वं परिहरति योऽसौ विजयिनः
शरण्यो लोकेशो मम भवतु कृष्णोऽक्षिविषयः ॥ ५ ॥

विना यस्य ध्यानं व्रजति पशुतां सूकरमुखां
विना यस्य ज्ञानं जनिमृतिभयं याति जनता ।
विना यस्य स्मृत्या कृमिशतजनिं याति स विभुः
शरण्यो लोकेशो मम भवतु कृष्णोऽक्षिविषयः ॥ ६ ॥

नरातङ्कोट्टङ्कः शरणशरणो भ्रान्तिहरणो
घनश्यामो वामो व्रजशिशुवयस्योऽर्जुनसखः ।
स्वयम्भूर्भतानां जनक उचिताचारसुखदः
शरण्यो लोकेशो मम भवतु कृष्णोऽक्षिविषयः ॥ ७ ॥

यदा धर्मग्लानिर्भवति जगतां क्षोभकरणी तदा लोकस्वामी प्रकटितवपुः सेतुधृदजः ।
सतां धाता स्वच्छो निगमगणगीतो व्रजपतिः शरण्यो लोकेशो मम भवतु कृष्णोऽक्षिविषयः ॥ ८ ॥

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NITISHATAKAM OF BHARTRIHARI WITH ENGLISH TRANSLATION

सूनुः सच्चरितः सती प्रियतमा स्वामी प्रसादोन्मुखः

स्निग्धं मित्रम् अवञ्चकः परिजनो निःक्लेशलेशं मनः  ।

आकारो रुचिरः स्थिरश्च विभवो विद्यावदातं मुखं

तुष्टे विष्टपकष्टहारिणि हरौ सम्प्राप्यते देहिना   । । १.२५  । ।

When Hari (Lord Vishnu) – the Lifter of worldly misery, pleased (then) a Person who has body (Human) gets a Son with Good Character, the most loving Wife, Master with face full of Happiness, an intimate Friend, Honest surrounding people (dependents), Mind devoid of whit of misery, attractive Physique, Secured wealth, and Mouth (Speech) refined by Education (Vidya).Nitishatak-25   

प्राणाघातान्निवृत्तिः परधनहरणे संयमः सत्यवाक्यं

काले शक्त्या प्रदानं युवतिजनकथामूकभावः परेषाम्।

तृष्णास्रोतो विभङ्गो गुरुषु च विनयः सर्वभूतानुकम्पा

सामान्यः सर्वशास्त्रेष्वनुपहतविधिः श्रेयसां एष पन्थाः।।१.२६।।

Abstaining from the destruction of life, Restraint from taking off the wealth of others, True sentence (Truth in speech), Donation as per (one’s) capacity, Being dumb in conversing about Young Women of others, Breaking the velocity of Desire, Humble (Obedient) towards Teachers, and Compassion towards All Beings, is the Path of Welfare (that is) the general unprejudiced method (found) in all Scriptures (Shastras). Nitishatak-26

प्रारभ्यते न खलु विघ्नभयेन नीचैः

प्रारभ्य विघ्नविहता विरमन्ति मध्याः।

विघ्नैः पुनः पुनरपि प्रतिहन्यमानाः

प्रारब्धं उत्तमजना न परित्यजन्ति।।२७।।

The Inferior Person does not start (any work) fearing obstacles, the Moderate leaves (the work) having started and struck by obstacle, the Good people do not leave the started (work) though (they) are beaten back again and again by obstacles. Nitishatak-27

असन्तो नाभ्यर्थ्याः सुहृदपि न याच्यः कृशधनः

प्रिया न्याय्या वृत्तिर्मलिनम् असुभङ्गेऽप्यसुकरं  ।

विपद्युच्चैः स्थेयं पदम् अनुविधेयं च महतां

सतां केनोद्दिष्टं विषमम् असिधाराव्रतम् इदम्।।२८।।

The Bad Men should not be Asked (for favours), Friend with little Property also not to be begged, Right (Just) Livelihood is Loveable, Even at the Danger of Life (doing) Dirty (is) Arduous (avoid doing filthy even at the cost of life), To remain Aloft in Adversity, Foot (Footsteps) of the Great (Men) (is/are) to be followed, Who did specify (did teach) (above characters)  this Terrible Vow of (Walking on) the Edge of the Sword to Goods (Good People). Nitishatak-28

क्षुत्क्षामोऽपि जराकृशोऽपि शिथिलप्राणोऽपि कष्टां दशाम्

आपन्नोऽपि विपन्नदीधितिरिति प्राणेषु नश्यत्स्वपि।

मत्तेभेन्द्रविभिन्नकुम्भपिशितग्रासैकबद्धस्पृहः

किं जीर्णं तृणम् अत्ति मानमहताम् अग्रेसरः केसरी।।२९।।

The Lion, Preceder (the Best) of the Great in Pride, Even Emaciated by Hunger, Old and Thin (Weak), Slackened in Breath, even Fallen in a State of Misery, Having gone (lost) the Splendour (Power) for Being Destroyed the Life Breathe, Feeling a longing for one mouthful flesh of broken frontal globe of the rut Kingly Elephant, (What) ever eat dry grass?

लाङ्गूलचालनम् अधश्चरणावपातं

भूमौ निपत्य वदनोदरदर्शनं च।

श्वा पिण्डदस्य कुरुते गजपुङ्गवस्तु

धीरं विलोकयति चाटुशतैश्च भुङ्क्ते।।३१।।

A Dog does waving the tail, falling down at the feet, having fallen down on the earth and showing face and belly to one who gives food (Master). But the celebrated elephant firmly looks over and eats after a hundred entreaties (repeated pursuance or pleasing words).Nitishatak-31    

परिवर्तिनि संसारे

मृतः को वा न जायते।

स जातो येन जातेन

याति वंशः समुन्नतिं।।३२।।

In this changing world, who is dead and (who) is not born? (The dead who is not born). He is born by whom born (by whose birth), the race (lineage) attains elevation.Nitishatak-32

कुसुमस्तवकस्येव

द्वयी वृत्तिर्मनस्विनः।

मूर्ध्नि वा सर्वलोकस्य

शीर्यते वन एव वा।।३३।।

Like a bunch of flowers, (there are) couple of ways of life of the great-minded (intelligent). (They are) – Either (placed) on the head of all people or just wither in the forest.Nitishatak-32

सन्त्यन्येऽपि बृहस्पतिप्रभृतयः सम्भाविताः पञ्चषास्

तान्प्रत्येष विशेषविक्रमरुची राहुर्न वैरायते  ।

द्वावेव ग्रसते दिवाकरनिशाप्राणेश्वरौ भास्करौ

भ्रातः पर्वणि पश्य दानवपतिः शीर्षावशेषाकृतिः   । । १.३४  । ।

There are five or six esteemed others beginning with Brihaspati (Jupiter), Yet, this Rahu who takes delight in splendid heroism does not become hostile towards them. O Brother! See that the Lord of Demons having remained with head swallows only the shining two – the Day-maker (Sun) and the Lord of life of night (beloved of night – Moon) in an occasion (at the time of eclipse).Nitishatak-34

वहति भुवनश्रेणिं शेषः फणाफलकस्थितां

कमठपतिना मध्येपृष्ठं सदा स च धार्यते।

तमपि कुरुते क्रोडाधीनं पयोधिरनादराद्

अहह महतां निःसीमानश्चरित्रविभूतयः।।३५।।

.

Shesha (a chief serpent known as Shesha) bears the multitude worlds that rest on (its) the flat surface of a surface’s hood. That (Sesha) is always borne by the chief tortoise on the middle of (its) back. The ocean makes it (the chief tortoise) also dependent on (its) laps with ease. Ah Ah! The glory of the character of the great is limitless.   

प्रमाणविचारः (PRAMANA VICAARAH)

प्रमाणविचारः

विधिषु विनियोगविधिः अन्यतमः । तस्मिन् विनियोगविधौ षट् प्रमाणानि निर्णायकरूपेण निरूप्यन्ते । तत्प्रसङ्गे इदं सूत्रम् - श्रुतिलिङ्गवाक्यप्रकरणस्थानसमाख्यानां समवाये पारदौर्बल्यमर्थविप्रकर्षात् इति । श्रुतिः, लिङ्गं, वाक्यं, प्रकरणं, स्थानं, समाख्यानम् इति षट् प्रमाणानि पूर्वमेव निरूपितानि । तेषु प्रमाणेषु सम्प्रति बलाबलं निरूप्यते अनेन सूत्रेण । सूत्रार्थो भवति - एषु प्रमाणेषु पूर्वपूर्वं प्रबलम् इति । अर्थात् लिङ्गात् श्रुतिः बलीयसी, वाक्यात् लिङ्गं बलीयः, प्रकरणाद् वाक्यं बलीयः, स्थानात् प्रकरणं प्रबलं, समाख्यायाः स्थानं बलीयः इति फलितः अर्थः । क्रमशः उदाहरणानि प्रस्तुत्य पूर्वस्य बलीयस्त्वं निरूप्यते । तथा च षट्सु प्रमाणेषु परस्परं (द्वयोर्द्वयोः) समवाये सति कस्यचिद् दुर्बलता (अन्यतरस्य प्रबलता) वा अर्थस्य सन्निकर्षं विप्रकर्षं वा दृष्ट्वा (सन्निकर्षे प्रबलता विप्रकर्षे दुर्बलता) निर्धार्यते ।

श्रुतेः बलीयस्त्वं यथा - ऐन्द्र्या गार्हपत्यमुपतिष्ठत इति । अत्र सन्देहः - किम् एन्द्रो देवता आहोस्विद् गार्हपत्यः (अग्निः) इति, यतः उभयोरपि श्रवणमत्र विनियोगविधौ । तत्र अनेन श्रुतेः बलीयस्त्वं निर्धार्यते । तद्यथा - गार्हपत्य इति शब्दश्रवणमात्रमेव । परन्तु ऐन्द्र्या इत्यस्य उपोद्बलकं लिङ्गं किञ्चित् श्रूयते - कदा च न स्तरीरसि नेन्द्रसश्चसि दाशुषे । अर्थाद् इन्द्रशब्दस्य विशिष्टदेवताभिधानसामर्थ्यम् लिङ्गमत्र । लिङ्गं नाम शब्दस्यार्थम् अभिधातुं सामर्थ्यम् । अर्थस्याभिधानं शब्दस्य श्रवणमात्रेण एव भवति सा श्रुतिः । प्रकृते इन्द्रस्य अभिधानं कदाचन इति श्रुत्यन्तरेण अवगम्यते । परन्तु गार्हपत्यस्य श्रवणमात्रेण एव जायते । एवं श्रुतिलिङ्गयोः तुल्यबले श्रुतेः बलीयस्त्वं भवति । तथा च अत्र गार्हपत्य एव उपस्थेयः इति निर्णयः । अत्र पुनः महान् विचारः वर्तते श्रुतिः लिङ्गम् इत्युभयमपि वाक्यमेव खलु कथं तस्य परिहारः इत्यादिः ।

लिङ्गस्य बलीयस्त्वं निरूप्यते । लिङ्गं नाम शब्दस्यार्थम् अभिधातुं सामर्थ्यम् । वाक्यं नाम संहत्य अर्थमभिदधति पदानि वाक्यम् । स्योनं ते सदनं कृणोमि घृतस्य धारया सुषेवं कल्पयामि । तस्मिन् सीदामृते प्रतितिष्ठ व्रीहीणां मेध सुमनस्यमान इति उदाहरणम् । अत्र विनोयोगद्वयं श्रूयते - उपस्तरणं, (पुरोडाशस्य​) आसादनम् इति । अत्र सन्देहः - किं कृत्स्नस्य मन्त्रस्य उपस्तरणे पुरोडाशासादने च प्रयोगः आहोस्वित् कल्पयामि पर्यन्तो भागः उपस्तरणे तदग्रिमभागः पुरोडाशासादने इति । यदि लिङ्गस्य बलीयस्त्वं तर्हि कल्पयामि इत्यन्तो भागः उपस्तरणे, तदग्रिमो भागः पुरोडाशासादने इति सिद्धम् । यदि वाक्यस्य बलीयस्त्वं तर्हि उभयत्र (उपस्तरणे पुरोडाशासादने च​) कृत्स्नस्य मन्त्रस्य प्रयोगः इति सिद्धम् । अत्र वाक्याद् लिङ्गस्य बलीयस्त्वम् अङ्गीक्रियते, अतः उपस्तरणे कल्पयामि इत्यन्तो भागः, तदग्रिमो भागः पुरोडाशासादने च प्रयुज्यते इति निर्णयः ।

प्रकरणवतः सन्निधौ आम्नानाद् दर्शपूर्णमासाङ्गम् अयं मन्त्रः । तस्मिन् सीदेति पुरोडाशासादनाभिधानसामर्थ्यात्सादने विनियुज्यमाने कृतसामर्थ्यं मन्त्राम्नानमिति, उपस्तरणेऽपि अस्य विनियोगे प्रमाणं नास्ति । एवं स्योनं ते सदनं कृणोमि इति मन्त्रः  प्रकरणाम्नानसामर्थ्यादेव दर्शपूर्णमासाङ्गतामापन्नः सामर्थ्यादेवोपस्तरणे विनियोगात् न पुरोडाशासादने विनियोगमर्हति । एवमुपस्तरणे तस्मिन् सीद इत्यस्य नास्ति सामर्थ्यम् । पूरोडाशासादनेऽपि स्योनं त इत्यस्य । अत्र अर्थविप्रकर्षो यथा - पूर्वेण एकवाक्यताम् उपेत्य उपस्तरणे सामर्थ्यम्, पूर्वस्य परेण एकवाक्यत्वात्  पुरोडाशासादने सामर्थ्यम् । नहि स्वरूपेण उभयोः सामर्थ्यं वर्तते इति एषः अर्थविप्रकर्षः ।

वाक्यस्य बलीयस्त्वं यथा - प्रकरणाद् वाक्यं बलीयः । संहत्य अर्थमभिदधति पदानि वाक्यम् इति वाक्यं निरुक्तम् । कर्तव्यस्य इतिकर्तव्यताकाङ्क्षस्य वचनं प्रकरणम् । तद्यथा - सूक्तवाकनिगदेषु पौर्णमासीदेवताः अमावास्यादेवताः च समाम्नातः । ताः परस्परम् एकवाक्यतां न लभन्ते । परन्तु लिङ्गसामर्थ्यात् पौर्णमासीशब्दप्रयोगात् इन्द्राग्निशब्दः उत्क्रष्टव्यः अमावास्यायां प्रयोक्तव्यश्च । तेन एकवाक्यता सिद्ध्यति । इदानीं सन्देहः - अत्र किं यत्र इन्द्राग्निशब्दः उत्कृष्टः तत्रैव शेषस्य (अवीवृधेतां महोज्यायो क्राताम् इत्यस्य​) प्रयोगः आहोस्विद् यावत्वारं सूक्तवाकमन्त्रेषु प्रयोगः दृश्यते तावद्वारं शेषस्य प्रयोग इति । प्रकरणाद्वाक्यं बलीयः, अर्थविप्रकर्षात् । कः अर्थविप्रकर्षः? वाक्ये एकैकं पदं विभज्यमानं साकाङ्क्षं भवति, कृत्स्नं परिपूर्णं भवति, तत्र प्रत्यक्षः एकवाक्यभावः, प्रकरणे परोक्षः । यतः इतिकर्तव्यताकाङ्क्षस्य समीपे उपनिपतितं पूर्णमिति तस्य प्रकृतस्य साकाङ्क्षत्वमवगम्यते, न एकवाक्यभूतम् इत्यनुमीयते । अतः एकवाक्यता प्रकरणे परोक्षा, वाक्ये प्रत्यक्षा, तस्मात् प्रकरणे अर्थविप्रकर्षः, अतः वाक्यं बलीयः ।अत्र प्रकरणाद् वाक्यस्य बलीयस्त्वात् यत्र इन्द्राग्निशब्दः उत्कृष्य नीतः तत्रैव शेषस्य प्रयोगः इति निर्णयः । अत्रापि महान् विचारः वर्तते ।

प्रकरण​-क्रमयोः बलाबलं विचार्यते - राजसूययागे (प्रकरणे) अभिषेचनीयसन्निधौ (क्रमे) शौनःशेफाख्यानं आम्नातम् । अत्र संशयः इदं शौनःशेफाख्यानं राजसूयस्य अभिषेचनीयस्य च इति सर्वेषाम् अङ्गम् आहोस्विद् अभिषेचनीयस्यैव इति । राजसूयप्रकरणत्वात् सर्वेषामङ्गत्वम् आहोस्विद् अभिषेचनीयक्रमत्वात् केवलम् अभिषेचनीयस्यैव अङ्गत्वमिति सन्देहः । अत्र क्रमस्य (स्थानस्य​) परस्य दुर्बलता (पारदौर्बल्यम्) यतः क्रमे अर्थः विप्रकृष्टः, प्रकरणे अर्थः सन्निकृष्टः । तस्मात् प्रकरणं प्रबलं, क्रमः दुर्बलः । तत्र प्रकरणे प्रत्यक्षं साकाङ्क्षता, क्रमे तावत् साकाङ्क्षता आनुमानिकी । अतः प्रकरणे श्रुत्यर्थः सन्निकृष्टः, क्रमे स विप्रकृष्टः । अतः अर्थविप्रकर्षात् क्रमस्य दौर्बल्यम् (पारदौर्बल्यम्) ।

सम्प्रति क्रम​-समाख्ययोः बलाबलं विचार्यते । शुन्धत्वं दैव्याय कर्मणे इति शुन्धनार्थः मन्त्रः । एषः सान्नाय्यक्रमे समाम्नातः । तत्र च समाख्या वर्तते पौरोडाशिकम् इति । इदानीं संशयः - सानाय्यक्रमत्वात् सान्नाय्यपात्राणां शुन्धनम् अहोस्वित् पौरोडाशिकम् इति समाख्यया पुरोडाशपात्राणां शुन्धनम् अनेन मन्त्रेण इति । अत्र अर्थस्य विप्रकर्षात् समाख्या दुर्बला, अर्थस्य सन्निकर्षात् क्रमः प्रबला इति निष्कर्षः । लौकिकः शब्दः क्रमः । एतादृशेषु अर्थेषु न लौकिकशब्दः प्रमाणं ,यत्र क्रमेण अर्थः स्पष्टः जायते । तस्मात् श्रुत्यर्थावगमने क्रमः एव प्रबलः, न लौकिकशब्दः । लौकिकशब्दपर्यन्तम् अनुधावनात् अर्थः विप्रकृष्टः समाख्यायाम् ।

समाख्यायाः तत्रैव प्रमाणं यत्र अनिन्द्रियविषयाः अर्थाः न उपपद्यन्ते । यत्र अनिद्न्रियविषयाः अर्थाः उपपद्यन्ते तत्र समाख्या न प्रमाणम् । यत्र अनिद्न्रियविषयाः अर्थाः न उपपद्यन्ते तत्र अभियुक्ताः प्रमाणम्, यत्र अनिन्द्रियविषयाः अर्थाः उपपद्यन्ते, न तत्र अभियुक्ताः प्रमाणम् इति निष्कर्षः ।

तथा च श्रुति-लिङ्ग​-वाक्य​-प्रकरण​-स्थान​-समाख्यानां समवाये = विरोधे, पारदौर्बल्यं - परस्य दुर्बलता (दुर्बलस्य भावः दौर्बल्यं, परस्य दौर्बल्यं = परदौर्बल्यं, तस्य भावः पारदौर्बल्यम्) , (यतः) अर्थविप्रकर्षात् = अर्थस्य असन्निकृष्तत्वात् । अतः अर्थस्य विप्रकृष्तत्वात् पूर्वं प्रति परं दुर्बलम् इति फलितः अर्थः सूत्रस्य ।

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LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY – VIEWS OF BHARTṚHARI

LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY – VIEWS OF BHARTṚHARI

(This is a Paper presented in the National Seminar Organized by Sahitya Akademy)

Vākyapadīya is one among the acknowledged authoritative works in Sanskrit Grammar. It is in Vākyapadīya , one can say with certainty that with full-fledged statement and discussion of philosophy of grammar is given. There are references in Sanskrit literature of the Doctrine of Śabdabrahma¸ right from the Vedas downwards. However, the complete postulate and discussion on Śabdabrahma¸ could be found in Vākyapadīya only, which is beyond any debate. The first Canto, known as Brahmakāṇḍa, deals with the basic concepts of Śabdabrahma¸. The second Canto deals with the nature of words and sentences. The third canto discusses grammatical topics mostly concerning with words. With this work, Bhartṛhari establishes himself as Linguistic Philosopher par excellence.

The basic difference between Indian and Western Research Methodologies is that the Indian Research Methodology and more particularly the RM of Āstikadarśanas depend on authority of Vedas; they never deviate from the sources of Vedas. Whereas the Western RM mainly depends on reasoning and it does not have any authority to rule over or command over it. So, when Bhartṛhari establishes that Supreme Word or Śabdabrahma¸ is the source, the sustenance and the end of all manifestations, immediately he quotes that the Vedas reflect this Brahman.

Vākyapadīya became the basis of Sphoṭa theory in Sanskrit Linguistics. Bhartṛhari views language in a holistic way. The word and the meaning referred by the word cannot be separated. He categorically says that the word and the Universe referred by it cannot be separated. By meaning he means the Universe or the objects that the word refers. Meaning has no independent entity as it is inbuilt in Sphoṭa. He also believes that all knowledge is elucidated by words. Thus, all knowledge is linguistic in nature, and the distinctions of objects are due to distinctions of words. Further, he postulates that the Word is the bearer of the meaning. Thus, the Word becomes the Sphoṭa. When the Listener hears a word, he or she at once decodes the meaning of the word he or she heard. The Word consists of two parts – phonetic part and the meaning part. The speaker’s mind first chooses the phonetic part and then employs it to convey the meaning. The Listener also first concentrates on the phonetic element, then passes on to meaning part. A word is to be first heard, before it can convey a meaning. There is causal relation between the word and the object. The object that exists within the form of the word is the cause, while the externalized word is the effect

There are two schools of thought – Monists and Pluralists among the Linguistic Philosophers. Monists hold that the sentence alone is the reality – the single unit. The words and syllables only appear to be complete entities. Pluralists are of the view that the syllables have a reality of its own, the word is a sum total of the syllables and the sentence is only the words added together, whereas Monists hold that the differences of diction and the like, which belong to the category of the produced sounds are superimposed on the indivisible Supreme Word i.e Sphoṭa and wrongly conceived to belong to the latter.

Speech occupies a key place in the scheme of things. It is crucial in the process of comprehension and action. Consciousness is comprehended only as associated with speech. Speech is man’s self and Mokṣa or Liberation is realizing identity with Speech or Śabdabrahma. He who knows the secret of the functioning of words and attains the achievement of faultless speech enjoys Brahman.

In this background of consciousness, we can compare the Concept of Linguistic Philosophy of Bhartṛhari with Jacques Lacan’s Theory of Subjectivity. In Vākyapadīya , Bhartṛhari  observes that he who has got the Vedic Knowledge, which shines unbroken like consciousness is not influenced by the inferential arguments of the Logicians. Here, the subject is conscious, which cannot be influenced by any authority. Institution also cannot be desecrated by rules. It is considered as the right and therefore, universal for cultured people. In Lacan, how the subject forms its subjectivity relies on the authoritative person, or the Law of the Father. Once he or she gets command over the language, he or she distinguishes himself or herself that he or she is a separate entity, different from his or her reflection on the mirror. Further, Bhartṛhari states that speech exists within and outside all living beings. Consciousness can exist in all creatures only after it is preceded by speech. Thus, he establishes supremacy of speech over consciousness.

Let us now turn our attention to Lacan's concept of the Real that dates back to 1936 and his Doctoral thesis on Psychosis. It was a term that was popular at the time, Emile Meyerson, who referred to it as an ontological absolute, a true being-in-itself. Lacan reopened the discussion in 1953 and continued to work on it until his death. According to Lacan, Real is different from Reality. Not only opposed to the Imaginary, the Real is also exterior to the Symbolic. Unlike the latter, which is constituted in terms of oppositions (i.e. presence/absence), there is no absence in the Real. Whereas the Symbolic opposition (presence/absence) implies the possibility that something may be missing from the Symbolic, the Real is always in its place. If the Symbolic is a set of differentiated elements (signifiers), the Real in itself is undifferentiated - it bears no fissure. The Symbolic introduces a cut in the real in the process of signification. Lacan stated that it is the world of words that creates the world of things - things originally confused in the here and now of the all in the process of coming into being. The Real is outside language that resists symbolization absolutely. In Seminar XI, Lacan defines the Real as the impossible because it is impossible to imagine, impossible to integrate into the Symbolic, and impossible to attain. Finally, the Real is the object of anxiety, insofar as it lacks any possible mediation and is the essential object which is not an object any longer, but this something faced with which all words cease and all categories fail, the object of anxiety par excellence.

Bhartṛhari believes that a person is born carrying linguistic intuition that he or she inherits from the previous generations. He imagines a prototype of language that expresses and shapes itself according to the culture. This linguistic intuition is perhaps what Lacan meant above. Further, Bhartṛhari says that in this world, the knowledge of the proper action entirely depends on speech. Even a boy has this knowledge of the proper action, having in him the accumulated experience of the past. Thus, Bhartṛhari is of the view that the Word or the Language from which this Universe originates. However, in contradiction to the statement of Lacan, that something faced with which all words cease and all categories fail, the object of anxiety par excellence, whereas Bhartṛhari  maintains that Supreme Word or Sphoṭa  is All Possible or Sarva Samartha. Further, he holds that in this world no comprehension is possible except as accompanied by speech. All knowledge shines as permeated by speech. Hence, there is no such impossible factor in Bhartṛhari ’s Word or Language.

Grammar is the most important of the disciplines, which have come out of Vedas that leads to the realization of the Brahman in the form of Supreme Word. We know the Reality about the things through words, and we know the Reality about the words through Grammar. Thus, Grammar helps us purify our speech and mind. Further, Bhartṛhari states that Supreme Word is devoid of all distinctions, and such distinct entities we observe, have their distinct forms as apparent parts of that Supreme Word. He classifies words into two categories: created and not created. Both can be described as eternal. The created words are only the manifestations of the Supreme Word and the eternal nature of which there is no question.

Dear Scholars, please keep in mind, that this was observed or established by Bhartṛhari in 7^th Century CE, almost 1200 years before Lacan.   

Now let me switch over to Linguistic Relativity. Language is related to cognitive process. This linguistic relativity talks about the structure of a language that affects the ways in which its speakers conceptualize their world, or otherwise influence their cognitive processes. This theory is known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism. Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf never wrote anything together and never floated their thoughts in the form of a hypothesis. This theory has two versions. The first version that language determines thought and those linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories and the second version that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behaviour.

The idea was first evidently expressed by 19^th century thinkers, such as Wilhelm von Humboldt, who viewed language as the expression of the spirit of a nation. However, Sapir in particular wrote more often against than in favour of anything like linguistic determinism. Sapir's student Benjamin Lee Whorf came to be seen as the chief advocate. He perceived linguistic differences to have consequences in human cognition and behavior. In 1960s, the study of the universal nature of human language and cognition came into focus. As a result, the idea of linguistic relativity fell out of favour among linguists. A 1969 study by Brent Berlin and Paul Kay demonstrated the existence of universal semantic constraints in the field of colour terminology, which contradicted the existence of linguistic relativity, although this conclusion has been disputed by relativists.

From the late 1980s, few linguistic relativity scholars have examined the effects of differences in linguistic categorization on cognition. They found extensive support for non-deterministic versions of the hypothesis in experimental contexts. Some effects of linguistic relativity, though they are weak, have been shown in several semantic domains. Presently, a fair view of linguistic relativity is promoted by the linguists holding the view that language influences certain kinds of cognitive processes in non-trivial ways. Research is focused on exploring the ways and extent to which language influences thought.

Let us now examine what constitutes the substance of speech. Here, Bhartṛhari floats three theories in Vākyapadīya. It is held by some that the Air, the Atoms, and the Consciousness become speech. There are an endless number of variant views in this matter. According to the first theory, even powerful objects are broken by air which possesses the attributes of speed and accumulation, blowing with the capacity to cause. If it so, it is quite nature that the language influences cognitive processes relatively.

Regarding the second theory, the Atom theory, the Atoms unite and separate, transform themselves into shadows, light, and darkness and also into speech on account of their possessing all possible capacities i.e the capacity to be transformed into all things. This theory also supports the language relativity.

The third theory, Consciousness Theory holds that the inner knower who exists in the subtle quintessential speech transforms himself into audible speech for the purpose of revealing his nature. Then the Consciousness taking the form of the mind and ripening in the fire of the stomach enters the life-breath, and it is then uttered. This theory directly relates speech or the language with mind and other organs, thereby establishing the strong bond between the language and the relativity.

Dear scholars, we can go on quoting and establish the supremacy of Indian Linguist Philosopher Bhartṛhari and equating him with the views of other Linguistic Philosophers of rest of India. However, mere presenting a paper by didactic form would not solve our issue. A scientific study is to be undertaken to prove the point. With this word of caution, I conclude my paper.    

References:

         

1. The Language of the Self: The Function of Language in Psychoanalysis, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968
2. Lacan, J., The Seminar of Jacques Lacan: Book I: Freud's Papers on Technique 1953–1954, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-30697-2, 1991
3. Ecrits: The First Complete Edition in English, Transl. by Bruce Fink, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2006.
4. The Seminar, Book XI, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis, Ed. by Jacques-Alain Miller, Transl. by Alan Sheridan, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, 1977
5. Lee, Penny, The Logic and Development of the Linguistic Relativity Principle. The Whorf Theory Complex: A Critical Reconstruction. John Benjamins Publishing, ISBN 978-1556196195, 1996
6. Ahearn, Laura. Living Language: An introduction to linguistic Anthropology, Pub. By Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781405124416
7. Leavitt, John, Linguistic Relativities: Language Diversity and Modern Thought, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-76782-8, 2011
8. Sapir, Edward, in David G. Mandelbaum, Selected Writings of Edward Sapir in Language, Culture, and Personality, University of California Press, 1983
9. Whorf, Benjamin, Ed. by John B. Carroll, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, MIT Press, 1956
10. Abrams, M. H., The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1953
11. Bruner, J. S., J. S. Goodnow & G. A. Austin, A Study of Thinking. New York: Wiley, 1962
12. The Vākyapadīya , Ed. & Transl. by Dr.K.Raghavan Pillai, Pub. By Motilal Banarasi Das, Varanasi, 1971
13. Vākyapadīya  – Canto – I Ed. By Pt. Cārudeva Śastri, Lahore, 1935
14. Vākyapadīya  Brahmakāṇḍa – with three commentaries, Ed. By Pt.Vedānanda Jha, Pub. By Mandākini Sanskrit Vidvat Pariṣad, Delhi, 2002

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CONCERN FOR ELDERS

Concern for the Elder

World Elder Abuse Awareness Day is observed today by the inter-national community. But most of the population of the world is not aware of this day and its importance. More irony is for whom the day is observed; they also do not know that a day is being observed to highlight their concern. Way back in 1968 the question on Ageing was raised in the UN Assembly by the Nation Malta.  The UN General Assembly passed a resolution in 2011 to declare 15^th June as World Elder Abuse Awareness Day. The UN has started many programmes world wide and made it a regular feature of the UN. The UN also established an International Institute of Aging in the year 1988 in Malta through which a series of training and awareness programmes are being organized. Further, there are courses on Gerontology and Geriatrics. Gerontology and Geriatrics are the new disciplines evolved in recent years. The former deals with the social issues of the aged people whereas the later deals with the deceases of the old people. That is why Geriatrics is often known as Medical Gerontology. There are nearly 80 crore old people in the world as on 2012 data and it is predicted that this number will increase to 203 crore in 2050. In India alone more than 10 crore people are in the age group of 60 years and above and this number will increase in three times in 2050. Almost majority of this population is suffering from one or the other kinds of abuse from their own family or the society. The UN defines Elder Abuse as a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust which causes harm or distress to an older person. Elder abuse can take various forms such as physical, psychological or emotional, sexual and financial abuse caused intentionally or unintentionally. The abuse may be in the form of minor to major ill-treatments. The ill-treatment may be of different kinds. Avoiding them in taking decisions in the family, ignoring them their very existence, making them to do works which they could not, ignoring their deceases, scolding them for their interference, beating them for one or the other reasons, isolating them from the family, not providing sufficient financial support, giving them a sort of psychological and physical tortures and stress, not providing proper food, clothes and shelter are some of the abuses the older or the aged people suffer from.

There are more cases of abuses than reported. Particularly domestic abuses are not at all reported world wide. They also suffer from societal abuses which make them isolated and put them under pressure and stress and thereby making them depressed psychologically. This depression leads them to extreme steps such as suicidal attempts. Now-a-days the joined family system collapsed and the married couples want to lead an independent life and they leave their parents in the Old Age Homes. Though all the essential facilities are made available at Old Age Homes, it cannot replace familial environment. They feel that they are willfully isolated and lead a miserable life.

In recent years the persons qualified in Gerontology is being engaged by the Old Age Homes to look after the aged people and to counsel them properly so that they could lead a comfortable and depression-free life. Further, the physicians with specialization in Geriatrics also care for the most old age deceases and diagnose,  suggest, prescribe medicines and the way of life to be adopted. Though this sort of measures certainly eases out the depression of the older people but only few are aware of these measures. Nevertheless, the old people adjust themselves and lead a miserable life with increasing abuses by their family. This day is being observed to bring awareness towards abuses against the elders. The family and children must also feel the lapses on their part and irresponsible behaviour towards their old aged parents. Also it is the duty of the society to make their life comfortable and happy. The Governments should also think, plan and introduce such schemes that would help the aged people to lead a self-esteem life without any dependence on their family or children. The Government cannot escape simply by sanctioning old age pension. It should oversee whether the pension reaches the person concerned and utilized for the purpose for which it has been sanctioned. The Government shall draw a plan and implementation procedure for this purpose. Such families who isolate or abuse their old parents and family members should be given training or counseling. Those who abuse their parents or older persons should be punished severely, so that such incidents do not recur. An awareness camps shall be organized often and the mind set of the people is to be changed. The Division of Social Policy Development (DSPD) of the UN works seriously and concretely in this direction to bring the ageing mainstream.

In India, though this phenomenon exists in every State and almost every family with little exception, the matter is not reported properly. This kind of domestic abuse could be seen in many families. However, in ancient days, the aged people led a happy and comfortable life. Because, the system was such that it compelled the person to adopt an institution called Vanaprastha, which was well known as the third Ashrama among the four Ashramas prescribed. In Vanaprastha having attained the old age and having their children grown up, one should leave the home along with his wife or alone, the option was given to the Vanaprastha either he can leave the home alone or with his wife having handed over all responsibilities to their heir. This system was in vogue that maintained the balance between the Grihastha and the Old aged. Vanaprastha Ashrama was adopted willfully by the Grihastha.  Children also felt their responsibility and made available all facilities to their parents. The Vanaprastha also led a simple life with minimum comfort. This was the system followed by the society in ancient days. However, this obsolete system cannot be prescribed as solution for the present day; at least one can adopt some of the features of Vanaprastha such as leading an isolated life without depression, leading the life with minimum comfort and with simplicity. The Gerontologists and Geriatricians do concentrate on these aspects of Vanaprastha Ashrama; it may provide solution to some extent.  At least on this day of International Day of Aged Abuse Awareness, we the present generation should learn to behave with older generation and treat them with honour and dignity that could only reduce this kind of abuse. Unless we change our mind set towards older people nothing is possible. At least we shall make a beginning by understanding the gravity of the issue and make ourselves aware of the problem.

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World Population Day

World Population Day

Today the international community observes World Population Day. What is the significance of this day? The world population increases day by day. It was 2.5 billion in 1950 and increased to 7 billion in 2011. In India at the time independence, it was 30 crores as the National Poet Bharati observed in one of his poems increased to 110 crores today. What if the population increases? Population affects various developmental activities of a Nation. The planning and budget of a Nation depends upon the population of that Nation. The fall and raise of a particular political system is also the after effects of population. The quality of education, protecting culture and heritage, public distribution, and even issuance of an identity card depend on population. If a Nation wants to provide medical facilities to its citizens, first it has to calculate the population then decides the number of Doctors it needs. If India wants to provide a true medical facility to its people, it needs at least one doctor to every 500 people, if we comprise to a satisfied proportion then also it may need one doctor to every 1000 people. Then it may need 11 lac Doctors for the purpose. The Nation has to plan in such a way that it gets 11 lac doctors in a reasonable period. At present 6 to 6.5 lacs doctors are available in India. Then India needs to increase its doctors’ population at least twice in number as per present need. To achieve this target, the Nation ought to increase the number of medical colleges, faculties, hospitals, number of seats in every college etc. This was necessitated because of abnormal increase in the population. The case is the same in every issue. The overpopulation augments the problems that a Nation faces. Population increase may lead to poverty and the poverty leads to unsocial and anti-social activities such as stealing, cheating etc. This may lead to low-governance and even to non-governance. The success of governance of a Nation depends on the size of population. Even in a family, we face a problem of adjustment in accommodating more number of members where the facilities are available to a less number of members. The same is the case with a Nation also. One can observe the success of less populated Nations. At the same time one can also observe the success of overpopulated Nation by its tireless efforts and labour. This is the difference in achieving success between less populated and overpopulated Nations. Everything goes on the high side in the overpopulated Nation due to its high demand. The secret of quality in private educational institutions lies in this aspect only. They cater to the need of the elite and haves, whereas the public educational institutions cater to the need of poor, middle class, mass and have-nots. In other words, the private institutions care for the less-populated class whereas the public institutions care for the overpopulated. This is also one of the major reasons that Government institutions fail to maintain quality, whereas the private institutions maintain high quality. Thus, non-adaptation of family planning leads to overpopulation. Another reason for the increase in population is the decrease in mortality rate which is an achievement on the part of scientific development indeed, but it accelerated the problem of overpopulation. According to UN report this decrease in mortality accelerated population from 1 billion in 1810 to 7 billion in 2012. The UN agency, United Nations Population Fund known as UNFPA (as it was previously United Nations Fund for Population Activities) increasingly devotes resources to country-led efforts, placing emphasis on country-focused and country-led implementation to achieve improved results, at the same time addressing mutual accountability and strengthening harmonization and alignment. This population increase is on the increasing proportion in all the age groups. For example, at present 16 million teenage girls give birth every year, but they do not even have a choice to plan their pregnancy. This is the most vulnerable aspect of population increase. That is why the World Population Day 2013 focused on Adolescent Pregnancy. Out of 600 million girls in the world, about 500 million live in developing countries. They are the face and shaper of present and future of a particular Nation. Their opportunities and choices in their adolescence make them to face their adulthood empowered and active citizens. Further, in developing countries about 16 million girls aged 15 to 19 give birth every year and complications during pregnancy and delivery are the main cause of death in that age group. To prevent this kind of death, almost all the Nations enforced the law by increasing the marriage age to 18 for girls of course except few Islamic and other orthodox Nations. 222 million women in the world want to prevent pregnancy and need contraception. However, in Yemen, Afghanistan, and much of Saharan Africa the women continue to have an average of 5 children or even more than that. In India also the same is the case with orthodox families, where there is no restriction in number of children.  If this trend continues the world population would be expected to touch 11 billion in the mid century. If the population adopts Family Planning along with maternal and child care, we can prevent 53 million unintended pregnancies and 250000 women death during pregnancy. Use of condoms and contraceptives will prevent infections transmitted through sexual intercourses. In India, every year 45 children are born for every 1000 people. The world population agencies are striving hard to achieve the mission of reducing population from the expected 11 billion in 2050 to somewhere 8 or 9 billion. These efforts will yield results only when the people at the grass root level understand the seriousness of the issue crossing their religious affiliations and orthodox mentality. Further, we must try the age old tradition inscribed in our scriptures for the better control of population. Our ancient scriptures talk about giving birth to children. They categorically say that the first child is Virtue Born (Dharmaja) and the other children are Sex or Desire Born (Kaamaja). Hence, in those days the couple felt ashamed to have a second child as that will be known as Sex-Desire-Born. Further, there are certain days prescribed for intercourse, that also prevented frequent pregnancy and they gave scope for the women and even to men the choice of having pregnancy. These ancient norms are not followed seriously, then population control is impossible or hard-possible to achieve. More the involvement of people is more the success rate in controlling population and achieving development. 

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HAPPY FUNCTIONAL NEW YEAR TO ALL

श्लोके कश्चन टङ्कनदोषः समजनि, द्वितीयपादे अन्तिमपदं "रभताम्" इति स्यात् ।